Impact of WaSH Practices on Stomach-Related Diseases in Indian Households : A Public Policy Perspective
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.17010/aijer/2024/v13i4/174044Keywords:
water
, sanitation, and hygiene (WaSH), disease incidence, sustainable development, stomach-related illnesses, health equity, public policy.JEL Classification Codes
, I15, I18, O15, Q53Paper Submission Date
, June 5, 2024, Paper sent back for Revision, October 1, Paper Acceptance Date, October 20, 2024Abstract
Purpose : Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene (WaSH) play a pivotal role in fostering inclusive growth and sustainable development. The global economic, social, and environmental repercussions of poor WaSH facilities are substantial, with developing countries bearing the major brunt. In this context, the present study examined the impact of WaSH practices on the prevalence of stomach-related diseases among Indian households.
Methodology : Using data from the National Sample Survey 76th round, the study employed cross-tabulations and binary logistic regression to empirically investigate the correlates of health outcomes in India.
Findings : A significant relationship between poor WaSH conditions and a higher incidence of stomach-related illnesses was found. Further disparities across socioeconomic settings highlighted the disproportionate impact of WaSH practices prevailing among the vulnerable sections. Notably, lower education levels, involvement in informal sector occupations, unimproved water sources, insufficient water availability, poor sanitation facilities, and inefficient water treatment methods significantly increased the likelihood of stomach ailments.
Practical Implications : Providing safe and sufficient WaSH access should be prioritized by expanding WaSH infrastructure, strengthening water treatment facilities, promoting affordable household filters, facilitating regular quality inspections, and mandating proper housing and ventilation standards. Targeted interventions should be designed for marginalized groups by providing subsidized facilities and educating households across formal and informal settlements. Technological innovations and cross-sector collaborations should be leveraged for the successful implementation of the initiatives.
Originality : The present paper contributed to the scant literature wherein the influence of WaSH practices on Indian households’ well-being was investigated. Further, the impact of both demographic and contextual variables was analyzed, providing valuable policy insights.
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
References
Adimalla, N., Venkatayogi, S., & Das, S. V. (2019). Assessment of fluoride contamination and distribution: A case study from a rural part of Andhra Pradesh, India. Applied Water Science, 9, Article No. 94. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13201-019-0968-y
Anbazhagi, M., Loganathan, D., Tamilselvan, S., Jayabalou, R., Kamatchiammal, S., & Kumar, R. (2007). Cryptosporidium oocysts in drinking water supply of Chennai city, Southern India. CLEAN: Soil, Air, Water, 35(2), 167–171. https://doi.org/10.1002/clen.200600034
Azevedo, M. J. (2017). The state of health system(s) in Africa: Challenges and opportunities. In Historical perspectives on the state of health and health systems in Africa (Vol. 2, pp. 1–73). Palgrave Macmillan. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-32564-4_1
Balasooriya, B. M., Rajapakse, J., & Gallage, C. (2023). A review of drinking water quality issues in remote and indigenous communities in rich nations with special emphasis on Australia. Science of The Total Environment, 903, Article ID 166559. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.166559
Basu, M., & Dasgupta, R. (2021). Where do we stand now? A bibliometric analysis of water research in support of the sustainable development goal 6. Water, 13(24), 3591. https://doi.org/10.3390/w13243591
Berihun, G., Adane, M., Walle, Z., Abebe, M., Alemnew, Y., Natnael, T., Andualem, A., Ademe, S., Tegegne, B., Teshome, D., & Berhanu, L. (2022). Access to and challenges in water, sanitation, and hygiene in healthcare facilities during the early phase of the COVID-19 pandemic in Ethiopia: A mixed-methods evaluation. PLoS ONE, 17(5), Article ID e0268272. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0268272
Bishoge, O. K. (2021). Challenges facing sustainable water supply, sanitation and hygiene achievement in urban areas in sub-Saharan Africa. Local Environment, 26(7), 893–907. https://doi.org/10.1080/13549839.2021.1931074
Biswas, S. S., & Karmakar, R. (2022). Determinants of hand-hygiene practices in India: Reflections from the 76th round National Sample Survey, 2018. Journal of Water & Health, 20(1), 68–82. https://doi.org/10.2166/wh.2021.140
Biswas, S., Dandapat, B., Alam, A., & Satpati, L. (2022). India's achievement towards sustainable development goal 6 (ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all) in the 2030 agenda. BMC Public Health, 22, Article no. 2142. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-022-14316-0
Biswas, T., Pal, S. C., Saha, A., & Ruidas, D. (2023). Arsenic and fluoride exposure in drinking water caused human health risk in coastal groundwater aquifers. Environmental Research, 238(Part 2), Article ID 117257. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2023.117257
Chastonay, A. H., & Chastonay, O. J. (2022). Housing risk factors of four tropical neglected diseases: A brief review of the recent literature. Tropical Medicine and Infectious Disease, 7(7), 143. https://doi.org/10.3390/tropicalmed7070143
Chauhan, J. S., Badwal, T., & Badola, N. (2020). Assessment of potability of spring water and its health implication in a hilly village of Uttarakhand, India. Applied Water Science, 10(2), Article no. 73. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13201-020-1159-6
Deshpande, A., Miller-Petrie, M. K., Lindstedt, A., Baumann, M. M., Johnson, K. B., Blacker, F., Abbastabar, H., Abd-Allah, F., Abdelalim, A., Abdollahpour, I., Abegaz, K. H., Abejie, A. N., Abreu, L. G., Abrigo, M. R., Abualhasan, A., Accrombessi, M. M., Adamu, A., Adebayo, O. M., .... & Adedeji, I. A. (2020). Mapping geographical inequalities in access to drinking water and sanitation facilities in low-income and middle-income countries, 2000–17. The Lancet Global Health, 8(9), E1162–E1185. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2214-109X(20)30278-3
Dimble, V., & Menon, N. (2017). Health policy, health outcomes, and economic growth: Lessons from India. International Growth Centre. https://www.theigc.org/sites/default/files/2017/05/Dimble-and-Menon-2017-policy-brief-6.pdf
Donde, O. O., Atoni, E., Muia, A. W., & Yillia, P. T. (2021). COVID-19 pandemic: Water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) as a critical control measure remains a major challenge in low-income countries. Water Research, 191, Article ID 116793. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2020.116793
Gera, T., Shah, D., & Sachdev, H. S. (2018). Impact of water, sanitation and hygiene interventions on growth, non-diarrheal morbidity and mortality in children residing in low- and middle-income countries: A systematic review. Indian Pediatrics, 55(5), 381–393. https://www.indianpediatrics.net/may2018/381.pdf
Giri, M., Behera, M. R., Behera, D., Mishra, B., & Jena, D. (2022). Water, sanitation, and hygiene practices and their association with childhood diarrhoea in rural households of Mayurbhanj district, Odisha, India. Cureus, 14(10), e29888. https://doi.org/10.7759/cureus.29888
Giri, S., Mohan, V. R., Srinivasan, M., Kumar, N., Kumar, V., Dhanapal, P., Venkatesan, J., Gunasekaran, A., Abraham, D., John, J., & Kang, G. (2021). Case-control study of household and environmental transmission of typhoid fever in India. The Journal of Infectious Diseases, 224(Suppl_5), S584–S592. https://doi.org/10.1093/infdis/jiab378
Goyanka, R. (2021). Burden of water, sanitation and hygiene related diseases in India: Prevalence, health care cost and effect of community level factors. Clinical Epidemiology and Global Health, 12, Article ID 100887. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cegh.2021.100887
Gupta, R., & Misra, A. K. (2019). Drinking water quality problem in Haryana, India: Prediction of human health risks, economic burden and assessment of possible intervention options. Environment, Development and Sustainability, 21(5), 2097–2111. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-018-0125-z
Gyanendra, Y., Yumnam, G., Alam, W., & Singh, C. I. (2022). A bibliometric analysis and assessment of scientific studies trend on groundwater research in India during 1989–2020. Arab Journal of Geosciences, 15, Article no. 1417. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12517-022-10707-0
Howard, G. (2021). The future of water and sanitation: Global challenges and the need for greater ambition. AQUA: Water Infrastructure, Ecosystems and Society, 70(4), 438–448. https://doi.org/10.2166/aqua.2021.127
Jatav, S. S., Nayak, S., Meher, S., & Narang, S. (2021). Coping to COVID-19 in Uttar Pradesh, India: Evidence from NSSO 76th round data. Current Urban Studies, 9(2), 206–217. https://doi.org/10.4236/cus.2021.92013
Jena, M., Panda, B., Behera, D., Mohanty, S., & Behera, M. R. (2024). Water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) practices of mothers and the health status of under-five children: A study from rural Nayagarh, Odisha. Journal of Water & Health, 22(7), 1293–1305. https://doi.org/10.2166/wh.2024.096
Kanungo, S., Chatterjee, P., Saha, J., Pan, T., Chakrabarty, N. D., & Dutta, S. (2021). Water, sanitation, and hygiene practices in urban slums of Eastern India. The Journal of Infectious Diseases, 224(Suppl_5), S573–S583. https://doi.org/10.1093/infdis/jiab354
Karande, K., Tandon, S., Vijay, R., Khanna, S., Banerji, T., & Sontakke, Y. (2021). Prevalence of water-borne diseases in western India: Dependency on the quality of potable water and personal hygiene practices. Journal of Water, Sanitation & Hygiene for Development, 11(3), 405–415. https://doi.org/10.2166/washdev.2021.200
Kaur, D., Kaur, K., Sharma, A., Goyal, H., Pahuja, A., & Solanki, D. (2022). Assessment of fluoride content in water and its impact on the intelligence quotient of school children aged 12–13 years. Cureus, 14(10), Article ID e30157. https://doi.org/10.7759/cureus.30157
Kim, J.-H., Cheong, H.-K., & Jeon, B.-H. (2018). Burden of disease attributable to inadequate drinking water, sanitation, and hygiene in Korea. Journal of Korean Medical Science, 33(46), Article ID e288. https://doi.org/10.3346/jkms.2018.33.e288
Kuberan, A., Singh, A. K., Kasav, J. B., Prasad, S., Surapaneni, K. M., Upadhyay, V., & Joshi, A. (2015). Water and sanitation hygiene knowledge, attitude, and practices among household members living in rural setting of India. Journal of Natural Science, Biology, and Medicine, 6(Suppl_1), S69–S74. https://doi.org/10.4103/0976-9668.166090
Kumar, A. (2018). Swachh Bharat Mission: A missed opportunity for the Indian economy. Arthshastra Indian Journal of Economics & Research, 7(3), 40–52. https://doi.org/10.17010/aijer/2018/v7i3/130155
Kumar, K. U., & Rajendran, S. (2016). A study on water and sanitation facilities in higher secondary schools in Salem District, Tamil Nadu. Arthshastra Indian Journal of Economics & Research, 5(6), 21–30. https://doi.org/10.17010/aijer/2016/v5i6/107519
Lin, J., & Feng, X. L. (2023). Exploring the impact of water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH), early adequate feeding and access to health care on urban–rural disparities of child malnutrition in China. Maternal & Child Nutrition, 19(4), Article ID e13542. https://doi.org/10.1111/mcn.13542
LIXIL Group Corporation. (2016). The true cost of poor sanitation. LIXIL. https://www.lixil.com/en/impact/sanitation/pdf/white_paper_en_cc_2016.pdf
Mackinnon, E., Ayah, R., Taylor, R., Owor, M., Ssempebwa, J., Olago, I. D., Kubalako, R., Dia, A. T., Gaye, C., Campos, L. C., & Fottrell, E. (2018). 21st century research in urban WASH and health in sub-Saharan Africa: Methods and outcomes in transition. International Journal of Environmental Health Research, 29(4), 457–478. https://doi.org/10.1080/09603123.2018.1550193
Maraddi, K. S., & Ho, Y.-S. (2022). A bibliometric analysis of publications on drinking water research in India. Current Journal of Applied Science and Technology, 41(44), 24–42. https://doi.org/10.9734/cjast/2022/v41i444010
McMichael, C. (2019). Water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) in schools in low-income countries: A review of evidence of impact. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 16(3), 359. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16030359
Meki, C. D., Ncube, E. J., & Voyi, K. (2022). Frameworks for mitigating the risk of waterborne diarrheal diseases: A scoping review. PLoS ONE, 17(12), Article ID e0278184. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0278184
Merid, M. W., Alem, A. Z., Chilot, D., Belay, D. G., Kibret, A. A., Asratie, M. H., Shibabaw, Y. Y., & Aragaw, F. M. (2023). Impact of access to improved water and sanitation on diarrhea reduction among rural under-five children in low and middle-income countries: A propensity score matched analysis. Tropical Medicine and Health, 51, Article no. 36. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41182-023-00525-9
Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation. (2018). Unit level data & report on NSS 76th round for schedule 1.2, July-December, 2018 (Drinking water, sanitation, hygiene and housing condition). Government of India. https://mospi.gov.in/unit-level-data-report-nss-76th-round-schedule-12-july-december-2018-drinking-water-sanitation
Mishra, V. K., & Khan, K. (2023). Determinants of discrimination in access to housing for marginalised social groups in India. Journal of Social Inclusion Studies, 9(1), 7–26. https://doi.org/10.1177/23944811231169194
Mohanty, N. K., Sahoo, K. C., Pati, S., Sahu, A. K., & Mohanty, R. (2020). Prevalence of chronic kidney disease in Cuttack district of Odisha, India. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(2), 456. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17020456
Mondal, D. (2022). Access to latrine facilities and associated factors in India: An empirical and spatial analysis. Indian Journal of Human Development, 16(3), 528–547. https://doi.org/10.1177/09737030221141248
Okesanya, O. J., Eshun, G., Ukoaka, B. M., Manirambona, E., Olabode, O. N., Adesola, R. O., Okon, I. I., Jamil, S., Singh, A., Lucero-Prisno III, D. E., Ali, H. M., & Chowdhury, A. B. (2024). Water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) practices in Africa: Exploring the effects on public health and sustainable development plans. Tropical Medicine and Health, 52, Article no. 68. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41182-024-00614-3
Palit, A., Batabyal, P., Kanungo, S., & Sur, D. (2012). In-house contamination of potable water in urban slum of Kolkata, India: A possible transmission route of diarrhea. Water Science & Technology, 66(2), 299–303. https://doi.org/10.2166/wst.2012.177
Palo, S. K., Kanungo, S., Samal, M., Priyadarshini, S., Sahoo, D., & Pati, S. (2021). Water, sanitation, and hygiene (WaSH) practices and morbidity status in a rural community: Findings from a cross-sectional study in Odisha, India: WaSH practices and morbidity in rural community. Journal of Preventive Medicine and Hygiene, 62(2), E392–E398. https://doi.org/10.15167/2421-4248/jpmh2021.62.2.1503
Parikh, P., Diep, L., Hofmann, P., Tomei, J., Campos, L. C., Teh, T.-H., Mulugetta, Y., Milligan, B., & Lakhanpaul, M. (2021). Synergies and trade-offs between sanitation and the sustainable development goals. UCL Open Environment, 2. https://doi.org/10.14324/111.444/ucloe.000016
Perin, J., Mulick, A., Yeung, D., Villavicencio, F., Lopez, G., Strong, K. L., Prieto-Merino, D., Cousens, S., Black, R. E., & Liu, L. (2022). Global, regional, and national causes of under-5 mortality in 2000–19: An updated systematic analysis with implications for the sustainable development goals. The Lancet Child & Adolescent Health, 6(2), 106–115. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2352-4642(21)00311-4
Portillo, L. J., Kayser, G. L., Ko, C., Vasquez, A., Gonzalez, J., Avelar, D. J., Alvarenga, N., Franklin, M., & Chiang, Y.-Y. (2023). Water, sanitation, and hygiene (WaSH) insecurity in unhoused communities of Los Angeles, California. International Journal for Equity in Health, 22, Article no. 108. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12939-023-01920-8
Prüss-Ustün, A., Bartram, J., Clasen, T., Colford, J. M., Cumming, O., Curtis, V., Bonjour, S., Dangour, A. D., De France, J., Fewtrell, L., Freeman, M. C., Gordon, B., Hunter, P. R., Johnston, R. B., Mathers, C., Mäusezahl, D., Medlicott, K., Neira, M., Stocks, M., … Wolf, J. (2014). Burden of disease from inadequate water, sanitation and hygiene in low- and middle-income settings: A retrospective analysis of data from 145 countries. Tropical Medicine & International Health, 19(8), 894–905. https://doi.org/10.1111/tmi.12329
Prüss-Ustün, A., Wolf, J., Corvalán, C., Neville, T., Bos, R., & Neira, M. (2017). Diseases due to unhealthy environments: An updated estimate of the global burden of disease attributable to environmental determinants of health. Journal of Public Health, 39(3), 464–475. https://doi.org/10.1093/pubmed/fdw085
Ravindra, K., Mor, S., & Pinnaka, V. L. (2019). Water uses, treatment, and sanitation practices in rural areas of Chandigarh and its relation with waterborne diseases. Environmental Science and Pollution Research International, 26(19), 19512–19522. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-019-04964-y
Ray, K., Shukla, V., Basu, M., Manna, S., Rashid, M., & Mondal, A. (2024). Water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) practices among residents of different slum settlements in a ward of Kolkata: A mixed-methods study. Journal of Education and Health Promotion, 13(1), 113. https://doi.org/10.4103/jehp.jehp_995_23
Raychaudhuri, P. S., & Singh, A. (2011). An exploratory study of hygiene, sanitation, and health awareness of people at some prominent public places in Delhi. Prabandhan: Indian Journal of Management, 4(7), 18–26. https://doi.org/10.17010/pijom/2011/v4i7/62573
Reddy, D. V., & Gunasekar, A. (2013). Chronic kidney disease in two coastal districts of Andhra Pradesh, India: Role of drinking water. Environmental Geochemistry and Health, 35(4), 439–454. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-012-9506-7
Saarangapani, B., & Sripathi, K. (2015). Environmental degradation in India - Dimensions and concerns: A review. Prabandhan: Indian Journal of Management, 8(4), 51–62. https://doi.org/10.17010/pijom/2015/v8i4/63821
Saroj, S. K., Goli, S., Rana, M. J., & Choudhary, B. K. (2020). Availability, accessibility, and inequalities of water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) services in Indian metro cities. Sustainable Cities and Society, 54, Article ID 101878. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scs.2019.101878
Sifullah, M. K., Sohel, M. S., Jamil, S., Hasan, M. M., Anika, J., Swadhin, H. R., Chaudhary, N., Rahman, M. N., Shaiara, M., Islam, M. T., Ahmad, B., Shomapto, M. I., Sarker, M. F., & Sohag, S. M. (2024). Assessment of water, hygiene, and sanitation practice and associated factors among Bihari refugee camp in Bangladesh: A cross-sectional study. Health Science Reports, 7(2), Article ID e1910. https://doi.org/10.1002/hsr2.1910
Silva, J. A. (2023). Wastewater treatment and reuse for sustainable water resources management: A systematic literature review. Sustainability, 15(14), 10940. https://doi.org/10.3390/su151410940
Singh, J., Hazrana, J., & Nazrana, A. (2016). Agriculture sustainability in Punjab with reference to groundwater availability. Arthshastra: Indian Journal of Economics & Research, 5(5), 49–55. https://doi.org/10.17010/aijer/2016/v5i5/105153
Soboksa, N. E., Gari, S. R., Hailu, A. B., & Alemu, B. M. (2020). Association between microbial water quality, sanitation and hygiene practices and childhood diarrhea in Kersa and Omo Nada districts of Jimma Zone, Ethiopia. PLOS ONE, 15(2), Article ID e0229303. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0229303
Taylor, D. L., Kahawita, T. M., Cairncross, S., & Ensink, J. H. (2015). The impact of water, sanitation and hygiene interventions to control cholera: A systematic review. PLoS ONE, 10(8), Article ID e0135676. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0135676
The World Bank. (2017). Waterlife: Improving access to safe drinking water in India. World Bank Group. https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/586371495104964514/pdf/115133-WP-P152203-PUBLIC-17-5-2017-12-28-1-WaterlifeCaseApril.pdf
The World Bank. (2023). Water: As the world's largest multilateral source of financing for water in developing countries, the World Bank is committed to Water for People and Planet. World Bank Group. https://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/water/overview
Tirumala, R. D., & Tiwari, P. (2022). Household expenditure and accessibility of water in urban India. Environment and Planning B: Urban Analytics and City Science, 49(8), 2072–2090. https://doi.org/10.1177/23998083221080178
Tiwari, P., Tirumala, R. D., & Shukla, J. (2022). Household choices of sanitation infrastructure and impact on disease in India. Environment and Planning B: Urban Analytics and City Science, 49(8), 2054–2071. https://doi.org/10.1177/23998083221088293
United Nations (UN). (2011). The human right to water and sanitation: Media brief. United Nations Water for Life Decade. https://www.un.org/waterforlifedecade/pdf/human_right_to_water_and_sanitation_media_brief.pdf
United Nations. (2014). 'Learning to live together' is vital in today's world, says UNESCO on International Day of Tolerance. UN News.
United Nations. (2023). Health, water and sanitation. https://india.un.org/en/171844-health-water-and-sanitation
United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF). (2023). Triple threat: Unmet needs in water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH), nutrition and health have disastrous consequences for children. https://www.unicef.org/media/137206/file/triple-threat-wash-EN.pdf
Usha, S., Rakesh, P. S., Subhagan, S., Shaji, M., & Salila, K. (2014). A study on contamination risks of wells from Kollam district, Southern India. Journal of Water, Sanitation & Hygiene for Development, 4(4), 727–732. https://doi.org/10.2166/WASHdev.2014.151
Wani, H., Smeets, P., & Shrivastava, S. (2022). Evaluation of WASH indicators associated with diarrhoeal disease among under-five children in an urban slum pocket, Mumbai city, India: A community-based repeated cross-sectional study. Journal of Water, Sanitation & Hygiene for Development, 12(4), 359–374. https://doi.org/10.2166/WASHdev.2022.196
White, D. R. (2004). A student's guide to statistics for analysis of cross tabulations. World Cultures, 14(2), 179–193. https://escholarship.org/uc/item/8xn2s349
Wolf, J., Hubbard, S., Brauer, M., Ambelu, A., Arnold, B. F., Bain, R., Bauze, V., Brown, J., Caruso, B. A., Clasen, T., Colford, J. M., Freeman, M. C., Gordon, B., Johnston, R. B., Mertens, A., Prüss-Ustün, A., Ross, I., Stanaway, J., Zhao, J. T., ….& Cumming, O. (2022). Effectiveness of interventions to improve drinking water, sanitation, and handwashing with soap on risk of diarrhoeal disease in children in low-income and middle-income settings: A systematic review and meta-analysis. The Lancet, 400(10345), 48–59. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(22)00937-0
World Health Organization. (2023a). 1 in 3 people globally do not have access to safe drinking water. https://www.who.int/news/item/18-06-2019-1-in-3-people-globally-do-not-have-access-to-safe-drinking-water-unicef-who
World Health Organization. (2023b). Drinking water. WHO. https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/drinking-water
World Health Organization. (2024). Mortality rate attributed to exposure to unsafe WASH services (per 100,000 population) (SDG 3.9.2). World Health Organization. https://www.who.int/data/gho/data/indicators/indicator-details/GHO/mortality-rate-attributed-to-exposure-to-unsafe-wash-services-(per-100-000-population)-(sdg-3-9-2)
Xu, L., Suman, S., Sharma, P., Kumar, R., Singh, S. K., Bose, N., Ghosh, A., Rahman, M. M., Polya, D. A., & Mondal, D. (2021). Assessment of hypertension association with arsenic exposure from food and drinking water in Bihar, India. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, 223, Article ID 112572. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2021.112572
